By Gaby Dufresne-Cyr, CBT-FLE
Behaviourism, a psychological theory that focuses on observable behaviours and their relationships with stimuli, has had a profound impact on dog training methods. At its core, behaviourism explains learning through two key mechanisms: classical conditioning (CC) and operant conditioning (OC). While these concepts are often discussed separately, in practice, they frequently occur simultaneously. Understanding how classical and operant conditioning interact can help trainers and owners approach training and behaviour modification with greater insight, ensuring that they foster learning in a positive, effective manner.
Classical Conditioning: Building Associations
Classical conditioning, first studied by Ivan Pavlov, occurs when an animal learns to associate a previously neutral stimulus with a significant event. In Pavlov’s famous experiment, dogs were conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell when it was repeatedly paired with food. Over time, the sound of the bell alone, even without the food, triggered the salivation response. This demonstrated how animals can develop associations between stimuli and involuntary responses.
In dog training, classical conditioning frequently plays a role in emotional responses and associations with particular stimuli. For example, if a dog learns that the sound of the doorbell is followed by the arrival of strangers, it may become excited whenever it hears the bell. This conditioned emotional response (CER) is involuntary, driven by the dog's association between the sound and the forthcoming food.
Operant Conditioning: Shaping Voluntary Behaviour
Operant conditioning, extensively studied by B.F. Skinner, involves learning through the consequences of voluntary behaviour. In this model, behaviours are either reinforced or punished to increase or decrease their frequency. Reinforcement (whether positive or negative) encourages a behaviour to recur, while punishment reduces the likelyhood it will occur again.
For instance, if a dog sits on cue and receives a treat, the dog is more likely to sit in the future because the behaviour was positively reinforced. Alternatively, if a dog pulls on its leash and the owner stops walking until the dog calms down, the removal of the opportunity to move forward acts as a form of negative punishment, decreasing the likelihood of leash-pulling.
Operant conditioning is often the main focus during active dog training sessions, where behaviours like sitting, staying, or coming when called are shaped and reinforced.
How Classical and Operant Conditioning Occur Simultaneously
In real-world dog training scenarios, classical and operant conditioning frequently occur together. This happens because as the dog learns to perform certain behaviours voluntarily (OC), it is also forming emotional associations with the cues, environments, and stimuli present during the training (CC). These processes are intertwined and can have complementary or conflicting effects on the dog's learning.
The following is an example of Dual Conditioning (DC). Consider teaching a dog to sit using a treat as a reward. The treat serves as positive reinforcement in OC, when the dog sits, the behaviour is rewarded with a treat, making the dog more likely to sit again in the future.
At the same time, CC is also at play. The presence of the treat, along with the trainer’s voice or body language, becomes associated with positive feelings in the dog. Over time, the dog begins to feel excited or happy simply when it hears the command sit or sees the trainer’s hand move in the familiar gesture for the command. These associations are CERs resulting from CC.
Here's an example of Simultaneous Conditioning (SC) in action. Consider a scenario where a dog jumps up on people to greet them. The owner may use OC to stop the behaviour by removing attention (negative punishment or P-) when the dog jumps. When the dog keeps all four paws on the floor, attention and praise (positive reinforcement or R+) are given. This is OC at work.
At the same time, CC is happening in the background. The dog is learning to associate the presence of visitors or the approach of a person with either positive or negative emotions. If the dog is continually punished for jumping, it might start associating people with unpleasant experiences, potentially leading to fear or anxiety around visitors (CC). This highlights the importance of balancing the emotional consequences of training with the behavioural outcomes.
Another common example is leash training. When a dog pulls on the leash and the owner stops moving, the dog learns that pulling halts progress (OP). Once the dog stops pulling, the owner resumes walking, reinforcing the desired behaviour (R+).
Simultaneously, the dog is likely developing emotional associations with walking on a leash (CC). If leash training is conducted with R+, the dog may associate walking beside its owner with positive feelings such as relaxation or excitement for exploration. On the other hand, if aversive methods such as leash corrections or choke collars (positive punishment or P+) are used, the dog may associate leash walking with anxiety or discomfort.
Implications for Training: Leveraging Both Conditioning Types
Understanding the dual nature of classical and operant conditioning can help trainers and owners optimize their training methods to ensure that both voluntary behaviours and CERs are developing in positive ways. Focusing exclusively on OC without considering the effects of CC can result in unintended negatively conditioned emotional responses (CER-).
Incorporating R+ into training not only shapes the dog’s behaviour but also encourages positive emotional associations with training sessions and the trainer. For instance, using treats or praise during training can not only reinforce desired behaviours (OC) but also condition the dog to feel happy and excited about learning (CC).
This is why many professional dog trainers advocate for science-based methods. Studies, such as those by Hiby, Rooney, and Bradshaw (2004), have shown that dogs trained using R+ are not only more obedient but also more likely to display fewer behavioural problems due to the positive emotional associations built during training.
When using punishment or aversive techniques, trainers risk creating CERs- that can lead to fear, anxiety, or aggression. Even if the dog learns to stop an unwanted behaviour, it may develop insecure-based aggression to the trainer, the environment, or the stimulus involved (CC). A study by Blackwell et al. (2008) found that dogs trained with aversive methods exhibited more stress-related behaviours and were less likely to display CERs.
To avoid such outcomes, it is essential to recognize how aversive stimuli may influence not just the dog's behaviour but also its emotional state. Training techniques that focus on reinforcing desired behaviours, while ensuring the dog remains relaxed and comfortable, help create a well-rounded, emotionally balanced animal.
Harnessing the Power of Simultaneous Conditioning
In dog training, classical and operant conditioning are inseparably linked. While OC shapes voluntary behaviour through reinforcement and punishment, CC forms the CERs that accompany these behaviours. Effective trainers understand that every interaction is an opportunity to influence both behaviour and emotion, and they strive to create positive associations alongside teaching desired actions.
By recognizing the simultaneous roles of classical and operant conditioning, trainers can take a more holistic approach to behaviour modification—one that prioritizes both the dog’s umwelt and its ability to learn and perform desired behaviours. Training should aim to build trust, reduce fear, and foster a positive relationship between animal and human, ensuring that both conditioning processes work in harmony for the best possible outcomes.
Next week, I'll discuss aversion training as a scientific explanation, not my personal beliefs or training methodology.
References
- Blackwell, E. J., Twells, C., Seawright, A. & Casey, R. A. (2008). The relationship between training methods and the occurrence of behavior problems, as reported by owners, in a population of domestic dogs. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 3(5), 207-217. https://doi.org/1016/j.jveb.2007.10.008
- Hiby, E. F., Rooney, N. J. & Bradshaw, J. W. (2004). Dog training methods: their use, effectiveness and interaction with behaviour and welfare. Animal Welfare, 13(1), 63-69. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0962728600026683
- Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. Oxford University Press.
- Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis. Appleton-Century.